The history of the Jewish people before the establishment of the Kingdom of Israel around 1000 BCE, under King David, is not fully understood. What we do know is that the ancestors of the Jewish nation lived in Canaan. The Kingdom of Israel was their first independent state.

Over time, the land was conquered repeatedly—first by the Assyrian Empire, then by the Babylonians, later by the Persians, and eventually by the Greeks. Independence was briefly restored under the Hasmoneans, but Rome ultimately took control. Following a series of revolts, the Romans forced many Jews into exile, scattering them throughout their empire, particularly in North Africa and Europe. Yet not all left—Jews continued to live in the Land of Israel, maintaining an unbroken presence that has lasted to this day.

The Jewish World in Antiquity

By 100 CE, the global Jewish population stood at roughly 5 million, about 2% of the world’s population—ten times larger proportionally than today. At that time, about 80% of Jews lived in the Middle East and North Africa. These Jews are known as Mizrahi Jews (Eastern Jews).

Over the centuries, Jewish communities also took root in Europe. These later became known as Ashkenazi Jews, who by the eve of the Holocaust made up about two-thirds of world Jewry. On the eve of World War II, the global Jewish population was around 16.6 million. The Holocaust murdered roughly half of that number, overwhelmingly Ashkenazim.

Most survivors resettled in the United States, while only about 200,000 immigrated to the newly established State of Israel. Around the same time, about 800,000 Jews from Arab countries were expelled or fled—most resettled in Israel, a population movement that mirrored the displacement of about the same number of Arabs (Palestinians) who left or were forced out of Israel in 1948.

Partition and Statehood

The United Nations proposed a partition of what is now Israel and Palestine, including Gaza. The Jewish leadership accepted the plan, but Arab leaders rejected it, and war broke out.

In 1948, Palestinians made up roughly two-thirds of the population of the region. By 1950, after Jewish immigration from Arab countries and Palestinian displacement, they were less than 15%. Today, the two populations—Israeli Jews and Palestinians—are nearly equal in number.

The Diversity of Israeli Jews

Today, the majority of Israelis have non-European grandparents. To describe Israelis as “white” and Palestinians as “brown” oversimplifies reality. Anyone who walks the streets of Israel can see the country’s wide range of appearances, backgrounds, and cultures.

Globally, about 46% of Jews live in Israel and 42% live in the United States and Canada. The remaining 12% are spread primarily across Europe, Latin America, and Australia. This represents a remarkable concentration: most Jews today are found in just two regions of the world.

The Three Main Jewish Groups

I tend to think of contemporary Jewry in three broad categories:

1. Israelis (non–ultra-Orthodox) — generally right of center politically.

2. Diaspora Jews in the U.S. and Canada (non–ultra-Orthodox) — generally left of center.

3. Ultra-Orthodox Jews (Haredim) — about 15% of the global Jewish population, the fastest-growing segment, and very much in their own world.

Growth and Decline

Israel’s Jewish population is one of the few in the developed world that continues to grow, with an average fertility rate of about 3 children per woman.

In contrast, the Jewish population in the United States is beginning to decline, due to low birth rates and high rates of intermarriage. About half of American Jews marry outside the faith, and many of their children do not identify as Jewish.

A Relationship Under Strain

For decades, Jews in the Diaspora strongly supported Israel—this was certainly how I was raised. But today, Israel’s expansion of settlements, the war in Gaza, and its shift to the political right are straining that bond. At the same time, rising antisemitism worldwide may paradoxically reinforce the sense of shared destiny.